ボルタンメトリー / ポーラログラフィ アプリケーション

This Application Note demonstrates square wave voltammetry for sensitive, reproducible quantification of paracetamol using a screen-printed electrode and INTELLO.

水中の重金属を検出するための高感度かつ選択性の高い手法としてDPV（微分パルスボルタンメトリー）の紹介とその装置構成、測定パラメータ、他の分析手法と比較した際の利点について詳しく解説しています。

高分子膜を利用したスクリーンプリント技術の進歩により、小型携帯型の電位差センサーを使用した電気化学測定による、ポイントオブケア分析への応用を紹介しています。

USP ガイドラインに従って 884 Professional VA とマルチモード電極を使用することで、甲状腺錠剤中のヨウ素を正確に測定し、治療効果を保証します。

This polarographic method uses the Multi-Mode Electrode Pro for simultaneous detection of carbonyl impurities in alcohols, ensuring high product quality and stability.

Thiourea measurement during copper electrorefining can be complicated by high chloride levels. Voltammetric analysis overcomes this issue, improving copper quality.

高品質な金めっきを実現するためには、金めっき浴中の一価金（Au(I)）濃度を適切に管理することが重要です。" Multi-Mode Electrode Pro " を用いたボルタンメトリー分析は、そのための効率的な分析手法です。

焼却排ガスは湿式洗浄などの処理が必要です。2060 VA プロセス アナライザーは、洗浄水中の重金属をボルタンメトリー（VA）によりモニタリングできます。

Accurate determination of Fe(II) and Fe(III) in water is crucial for many industries. Cathodic sweeping voltammetry (CSV) offers a robust, cost-effective solution.

Iodide contamination in glacial acetic acid poses risks for downstream processes. Cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV) at the HMDE offers reliable iodide measurement.

It is crucial to monitor iodide in NaCl brine to prevent membrane fouling during chlor-alkali electrolysis. Stripping voltammetry offers precise iodide analysis.

無電解ニッケルめっき中の三価アンチモン（Sb(III)）安定剤の濃度管理は、高品質なコーティングを実現するうえで非常に重要です。アノードストリッピングボルタンメトリーは、迅速かつ信頼性の高いSb(III)の分析を可能にします。

無電解ニッケルめっきは、優れた表面仕上げと耐食性を提供します。アノードストリッピングボルタンメトリー法により、ニッケルめっき浴中のビスマス安定剤のモニタリングが可能です。

無電解ニッケルめっきは、低コストで優れた耐摩耗性および耐食性を実現します。ニッケルめっき浴中の鉛系安定剤の濃度は、ビスマスドロップ電極を用いることでモニタリングが可能です。

リチウム鉄リン酸塩（LiFePO4）電池は、安全性と耐久性をユーザーに提供します。ポーラログラフィー法による化学形態解析は、正極材料中のFe(II)およびFe(III)の評価を可能にし、さまざまな試験に役立ちます。

This White Paper presents four different «green» sensors: the scTRACE Gold, screen-printed electrodes, the glassy carbon electrode, and the Bi drop electrode from Metrohm that can be used to determine low concentrations of heavy metals in different sample matrices, such as boiler feed water, drinking water, and sea water.

ボルタンメトリー (VA) は、工業用潤滑剤の残留酸化防止剤含有量を迅速に分析できます。この技術資料では、説明されている柔軟でモジュラーな メトロームのVA システムを使用して、ASTM のすべての要件を満たす、再現性と再現性の高い結果を紹介しています。さらに、プロセス分析を完全自動化例を紹介しています。

The toxic element cadmium (Cd) can be found in elevated concentrations with high bioavailability in some soils. Under such conditions, cacao trees can accumulate cadmium in the beans, which are then processed into cocoa. Chocolate produced from the affected beans will contain elevated cadmium levels. Typical limit values in the European Union are between 100 µg/kg and 800 µg/kg (EU Commission Regulation 1881/2006) depending on the cocoa content of the chocolate.Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) can be used to accurately determine trace quantities of cadmium in chocolate down to approximately 10 µg/kg. The method is simple to perform, specific, and free of interferences. Prior to determination the samples are ashed in a furnace at 450 °C.

EUの規制では、飲料水中のニッケルの上限値を20μg/Lと規定しています。世界保健機関の「飲料水の品質に関するガイドライン」における現行の暫定的な指針値は、ニッケルの最大濃度を70μg/Lに設定しています。ビスマス膜に変更したメトローム・ドロップセンス スクリーンプリント電極（SPE）を用いた吸着ストリッピングボルタンメトリー（AdSV）技術は、ニッケルの濃度0.4μg/L、コバルトの濃度0.2μg/Lまで同時に検出することができます。これらの下限値は、堆積時間を増やすことでさらに低減させることが可能です。この方法のもう一つの利点は、革新的で費用対効果の高いSPEにあります。これは、セラミック基板上の炭素作業電極、Ag/AgCl基準、および炭素補助電極からなる組み合わせ電極です。この使い捨て電極は、機械的な研磨や清掃などのメンテナンスを必要とせず、884 Professional VAで従来の研究室で使用するか、または946 Portable VA Analyzerで屋外で使用することができます。この方法は、手動システムに最適です。

メトローム・ドロップセンスのスクリーンプリント電極（SPE）を使用したボルタンメトリーなら、0.3μg/Lの濃度までのカドミウムと鉛の両元素を同時に測定することができます。これはWHOの指針値をモニタリングするのに適しています。

人体へのカドミウムの有毒影響を軽減し、また鉛の神経毒性影響を制限するために、世界保健機関の「飲料水の品質に関するガイドライン」における仮の指針値は、カドミウムについては最大濃度を3μg/L、鉛については10μg/Lに設定されています。完全に水銀フリーの滴下ビスマス電極は、ボルタンメトリー分析を非有毒な重金属検出装置としました。この環境にやさしい電極を用いて飲料水中のカドミウムと鉛を同時定量が可能です。

Testing of in-service lubricating oils for their remaining antioxidant content is critical for capital equipment uptime as well as reducing running costs and repair expenses. Test methodologies such as RPVOT (rotating pressure vessel oxidation test) are time consuming and expensive to perform. Remaining Useful Life is a proven voltammetric method for testing the remaining active antioxidant content in minutes. Depending on the electrolyte, aromatic amine and phenolic antioxidants or hindered phenolic antioxidants can be determined.For the first time, a fully automated system is demonstrated, showing dramatically improved repeatability of data for confidence in reporting. Operator time is saved during sample preparation and irreproducible manual interpretation is eliminated via completely autonomous software processing. The user adds the sample into the vials, then the determination process of the sample series (including sample preparation and result calculations) is carried out automatically. The system is based on methods ASTM D6810, ASTM D6971, ASTM D7527, and ASTM D7590.

Sodium pertechnetate (99mTc) radiopharmaceuticals are widely used in medical imaging diagnostic procedures to help diagnose a large number of diseases affecting the bones and major organs. These radiopharmaceuticals are usually prepared from cold kits consisting of several ingredients, including a reducing agent. Sn(II) is a typical reducing agent which reduces the Tc(VII) that is added to the cold kit to a lower oxidation state which then forms the stable organic complex.For quality control, the tin content has to be determined in the kit vial. Sn(II) can be selectively determined using differential pulse polarography. Polarography is a straightforward, sensitive, selective, and interference-free method for the determination of mg/L levels of Sn(II) in radiopharmaceuticals.

Bismuth is considered as a metal with a very low toxicity. In high concentrations toxic effects have been described, however. There is no guideline value for bismuth in the World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» because typical levels usually found in drinking water are of no concern. Anodic stripping voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for the determination of bismuth in drinking water. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, anodic stripping voltammetry can be used in the laboratory or alternatively in the field with the 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out on the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Nickel is widely used in stainless steel production. At high enough concentrations, it is known to cause allergic reactions when in contact with skin. Drinking water may be contaminated by taps which are made from metals containing nickel. The guideline value for nickel in the World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» is set to 70 μg/L. National limit values of typically lower at e. g. 20 μg/L. Cobalt usually occurs associated with nickel and can be found in smaller concentrations besides nickel. Adsorptive stripping voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for the determination of nickel and cobalt in drinking water. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, adsorptive stripping voltammetric determinations can be used in the laboratory or alternatively in the field with the 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out on a bismuth film applied to the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Iron is an essential element in human nutrition. It can be present in drinking water as a result of water treatment or from corrosion in the water piping system. There is no guideline value for iron in the World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» because typical levels usually found in drinking water are of no concern. However, there are national limit values in various countries. The European Union has set a guideline indicator value for iron of 200 μg/L. Voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for the determination of iron in drinking water. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, anodic stripping voltammetric determinations can be done used conventionally in the laboratory or alternatively in the field using the with 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out with adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) using 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) on the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Zinc is an essential trace element for humans. Excessive intake of zinc in higher concentrations can be harmful, however. There is no guideline value for zinc in the World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» because typical levels usually found in drinking water are of no concern. Anodic stripping voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for the determination of zinc in drinking water. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, anodic stripping voltammetric determinations can be used conventionally in the laboratory or alternatively in the field using with 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out on the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Lead is known to be highly toxic to humans as it interferes with enzyme reactions. Chronic lead poisoning can be caused by lead leaching into drinking water from piping systems. The current provisional guideline value in the World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» sets a maximum concentration of 10 μg/L. With a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.2 μg/L, anodic stripping voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) to determine lead in drinking water. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, anodic stripping voltammetry can be used conventionally in the laboratory or alternatively in the field with the 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out on a silver film applied to the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Higher levels of copper in drinking water are usually caused by corrosive action of water leaching copper from copper pipes. While copper is an essential nutrient for the human organism, ingestion of higher concentrations have an adverse effect on human health. The current World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» recommend a maximum concentration of 2000 μg/L. With a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.5 μg/L, anodic stripping voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for the determination of copper in drinking water. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, anodic stripping voltammetry can be used conventionally in the laboratory or alternatively in the field with the 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out on the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Arsenic is ubiquitous in the earth’s crust in low concentrations. Elevated levels can be found in mineral deposits and ores. Arsenic from such deposits leaches into the groundwater in the form of arsenite (AsO33–) and arsenate (AsO43–), causing its contamination. As(III) is more toxic than As(V) and shows higher mobility in the environment. The selective determination of this species is possible using the method described in this document.With a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.3 μg/L, anodic stripping voltammetry allows speciation, i.e. the specific determination of As(III). While atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) (and competing methods) can only determine the total element concentration, anodic stripping voltammetry is selective to the As(III) oxidation state. The determination is carried out on the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Arsenic is ubiquitous in the earth’s crust in low concentrations. Elevated levels can be found in mineral deposits and ores. Arsenic from such deposits leaches into the groundwater in the form of arsenite (AsO33–) and arsenate (AsO43–), causing its contamination. In addition to the arsenic originating from natural sources, industry and agriculture contribute to the contamination to a lower extent. The guideline value for inorganic total arsenic in the World Health Organization’s «Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality» is set to 10 μg/L. With a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.9 μg/L, anodic stripping voltammetry is a viable, less sophisticated alternative to atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for the determination of arsenic. While AAS (and competing methods) can only be performed in a laboratory, anodic stripping voltammetry can be used conventionally in the laboratory or alternatively in the field using the 946 Portable VA Analyzer. The determination is carried out on the scTRACE Gold electrode.

Iron sucrose injection is a dark brown liquid which contains sucrose and iron(III) hydroxide in an aqueous solution, commonly used for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia. As a medical product, iron sucrose is subject to strict controls. Among other tests, the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) requires to monitor the limit of Fe(II) in the iron sucrose injection solution by polarography. The benefit of polarography is that Fe(II) and Fe(III) show signals at different potentials, and therefore an easier determination of Fe(II) without a previous separation of the two oxidation states is possible. The 884 Professional VA together with the viva software allows a straightforward determination of the Fe(II) content of iron sucrose injection solution following the requirements of the USP. The Fe(II) content is automatically calculated and stored in a database together with all relevant determination and calculation parameters.

Thiomersal (also called thimerosal) is a mercury containing organic molecule that has been widely used as preservative for vaccines and eye drops. It is very effective, even in very low concentrations, against a wide range of microorganisms and viruses. To reduce the risk for consumers the maximum concentration of mercury in the products is limited by the authorities. Polarography or voltammetry can be used to accurately determine the concentration of thiomersal in vaccines or other cosmetic and pharmaceutical solutions (such as eye drops). The method is simple to perform, specific, and free of interferences.

Capacitors are electronic components necessary for the success of the electronics industry. They have also become essential components of both electric and hybrid vehicles. Electrochemical tests, such as potentiostatic cyclic voltammetry, are used to check the performance of capacitors. VIONIC powered by INTELLO can perform both staircase and linear cyclic voltammetries (CV). This Application Note gives a comparison between the linear and the staircase potentiostatic cyclic voltammetries and highlights the necessity of using the linear CV to best study the performance of capacitors.

The study of the electrochemical behavior of platinum in acidic media is of crucial importance in fundamental electrochemistry and electrocatalysis. Most electrocatalytic processes occurring at Pt electrodes are highly sensitive to the structure of the platinum surface. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a widely used rapid measurement technique that provides both a qualitative and quantitative fingerprint of platinum surfaces. A comparison of results given by linear and staircase CVs is presented in this Application Note.

無電解ニッケルめっきは、様々な工業生産プロセスで使用されています。プリント回路基板の製造におけるENIG（無電解ニッケル、無電解金）プロセスとENEPIG（無電解ニッケル、無電解パラジウム、無電解金）プロセスは、無電解ニッケルめっきプロセスの最初のステップであるため、この工程の歩留まりに大きく関与しています。めっき不良による規格外製品の量を減らすことで、メーカーは大幅なコスト削減を実現できます。 ディファレンシャル・パルス・アノード・ストリッピング・ボルタンメトリーは、希釈後の活性鉛(Pb)濃度を測定するために使用することができます。ボルタンメトリーによる定量は、この用途において、簡便、高感度、選択的で干渉を受けない方法として確立されています。

水銀とその化合物は有毒です。世界保健機関（WHO）の「飲料水水質ガイドライン」における無機水銀の基準値は 6 µg/L に設定されています。実験室での使用だけでなく、ポータブルタイプを使い現場でも水銀測定ができます。測定は scTRACE Gold 電極で行われます。

ボイラー給水中の鉄濃度は、水–蒸気系の信頼性と安全な運転を確保するために監視する必要があります。さまざまなガイドラインにおいて、鉄分の最大含有量には上限が設けられています。 ボイラー給水中の全鉄濃度は、錯化剤として 2,3-ジヒドロキシナフタレン（DHN）を用いた吸着ストリッピングボルタンメトリー（AdSV）により、高感度に測定することが可能です。 ボルタンメトリーは、鉄の定量において、原子吸光分析（AAS）や誘導結合プラズマ（ICP）と比べて装置投資が比較的少なく、ランニングコストも低い、実用的で高度な設備を要しない代替手法です。

鉛は、かつて無電解ニッケルめっきプロセスで安定剤として一般的に使用されていました。安定剤濃度の定期的かつ正確な測定は、めっきプロセスを安定した条件下で正常に稼動させるために不可欠です。近年、消費者製品、特に電子機器への鉛の使用が制限されるようになったため、代替安定剤が開発・導入されました。鉛の代替として使用される安定剤のひとつに、ヨウ素酸（IO3-）があります。 無電解ニッケルめっきは、さまざまな工業生産プロセス（ハードディスクの生産、腐食や摩耗からの保護など）で使用されています。プリント基板(PCB)の製造におけるENIG(無電解ニッケル、無電解金)およびENEPIG(無電解ニッケル、無電解パラジウム、無電解金)プロセスは、無電解ニッケルめっきがプロセスの最初の工程であるため、無電解ニッケルめっきプロセスの最初のステップであるため、この工程の歩留まりに大きく関与しています。 ポーラログラフィーは、支持電解液で希釈した後のヨウ素酸の含有量を測定するために使用することができ、このアプリケーションのための簡単、高感度、選択的で干渉を受けることのない方法として確立されています。

プリント回路基板の製造におけるENIG（無電解ニッケル、無電解金）プロセスとENEPIG（無電解ニッケル、無電解パラジウム、無電解金）プロセスは、無電解ニッケルめっき工程の最初のステップであるため、この工程の歩留まりに非常に関与しています。 ディファレンシャル・パルス・アノード・ストリッピング・ボルタンメトリー は、安定剤の濃度測定に適した、高感度、高選択性、干渉のない簡便な方法として確立されています。

ニッケルおよびコバルトは、その毒性および人の健康への有害な影響があるため、飲料水中の濃度を管理する必要があります。 このため、欧州連合（EU）の法令では、飲料水中のニッケルの基準値を 20 µg/L に設定しています。また、世界保健機関（WHO）の『飲料水水質ガイドライン』におけるニッケルの暫定的な指標値は、最大濃度 70 µg/L に設定されています。ニッケルおよびコバルトの濃度を 884 Professional VA により測定するために、ビスマス膜で修飾されたガラス状炭素回転電極（GC-RDE）を用いた同時測定法が使用されます。

表層水中にタリウムが存在することは、工業排水の影響を示す指標であり、摂取された場合には深刻な健康被害を引き起こすおそれがあります。 タリウム濃度の監視は、銀膜で修飾された scTRACE Gold を用いた陽極溶出ボルタンメトリーによって容易に行うことができます。この非毒性の手法により、10〜250 µg/L の範囲でタリウム濃度を測定することが可能であり、946 ポータブル VA アナライザーを用いて実施できます。

世界保健機関（WHO）の「飲料水水質ガイドライン」における総クロムの指針値は 50 µg/L です。六価クロム（Cr(VI)）は、三価クロム（Cr(III)）よりも毒性が高く、存在量は少ないため、飲料水中の濃度を監視するには堅牢かつ高感度な測定手法が求められます。この目的に対しては、水銀膜で修飾された scTRACE Gold を用いることが可能であり、取り扱いが容易で、安定性にも優れているという特長があります。これにより、飲料水中の六価クロムを正確にモニタリングすることができます。

セレンの毒性と必須レベルの差は非常に微細です。そのため、現行の世界保健機関の「飲料水の品質に関するガイドライン」および欧州飲料水指令におけるセレン（IV）の暫定的な指針値は、最大濃度を10μg/Lに設定しています。スクリーンプリント電極によるボルタンメトリー（VA）により、0.5μg/Lのセレンの濃度を測定することができます。

カドミウムによる腎臓、骨格、呼吸器系への毒性影響および、鉛の神経毒性影響を低減するために、世界保健機関（WHO）の『飲料水水質ガイドライン』では、カドミウムの暫定的な指標値を最大濃度 3 µg/L、鉛については 10 µg/L に設定しています。外部で水銀膜を修飾したガラス状炭素電極を用いる強力な陽極溶出ボルタンメトリー（ASV）法は、飲料水中のカドミウムおよび鉛について、WHO が提唱するこれらのガイドライン値を十分に監視することが可能です。

飲料水中に鉄が存在すると、不快な味や着色の原因となるほか、「鉄バクテリア」の繁殖によって配管の詰まりや悪臭を引き起こすことがあります。 長期的には、不溶性の鉄沈殿物の形成が、産業用途や農業用途において問題となることもあります。これらの問題を回避するために、米国環境保護庁（EPA）は、水処理および処理施設における飲料水中の鉄濃度に対して、二次最大汚染物質レベル（SMCL）として 0.3 mg/L を定めています。非毒性のビスマス滴下電極を用いた鉄–トリエタノールアミン錯体のボルタンメトリー測定法により、非常に低濃度（検出下限 0.005 mg/L）での検出が可能であり、最大 0.5 mg/L に至る広い濃度範囲での測定にも対応しています。

ニッケル汚染の主な原因は、電気めっき、冶金作業、または配管や継手からの溶出です。コバルトは、石油および化学工業における触媒として主に使用されています。いずれの場合も、これらの金属は直接的に、あるいは廃水から河川を経由して飲料水システムへ放出されることがあります。そのため、欧州連合（EU）では、飲料水中のニッケル濃度の基準値を20 µg/Lと定めています。ニッケルおよびコバルトの同時かつ簡便な測定は、吸着溶出ボルタンメトリー（AdSV）に基づいています。非毒性のビスマス滴下電極の特異な特性とAdSVを組み合わせることで、感度において優れた性能を発揮します。

亜鉛については、健康に基づく指標値は設定されていません。 しかし、良好な水道水の品質を維持するために、アメリカ合衆国環境保護庁（US-EPA）は最大濃度を 5 mg/L とする基準値を定めています。表流水および地下水中の一般的な亜鉛濃度は 10～40 μg/L 程度であり、水道水では最大で 1 mg/L に達することもあります。飲料水中の亜鉛の測定には、外部で水銀膜を修飾したガラス状炭素電極を用いた陽極溶出ボルタンメトリー（ASV）が、原子吸光分析法（AAS）よりも簡便な代替手法として有効です。

世界保健機関（WHO）の『飲料水水質ガイドライン』におけるクロムの指標値は 50 µg/L と定められています。 ここで注意すべき点は、クロム濃度がしばしば総クロムとして表記され、三価クロム（Cr(III)）や六価クロム（Cr(VI)）としてではないことです。 六価クロムは遺伝子材料の変異を引き起こす原因となり、その濃度は三価クロムに比べて著しく低いことが知られています。したがって、飲料水中の六価クロムを監視するには極めて高感度な測定手法が必要です。そのような低濃度を測定するために、DTPA を錯形成剤として用い、外部で水銀膜を修飾したガラス状炭素電極を用いる強力な吸着溶出ボルタンメトリー（AdSV）法が適用できます。

アンチモンの毒性は酸化状態に依存し、三価アンチモン（Sb(III)）は五価アンチモン（Sb(V)）よりも毒性が高いとされています。発がん性があるため、EUの法規制では飲料水中のSb(III)の指針値を5 µg/Lに設定しており、世界保健機関（WHO）も最大濃度を20 µg/Lと定めています。アノードストリッピングボルタンメトリー（ASV）を用いた簡便な定量法は、分析時間が10分未満と迅速であり、飲料水中の三価アンチモン濃度を超高感度で監視することが可能です。測定は、実験室では884 Professional VAを用いて、または現場では946 Portable VA Analyzerを用いて行うことができます。

テリウムは、近年、太陽光変換技術や量子ドット、熱電技術において技術的に重要な元素の一つとして特定されており、新たな新興汚染物質となる可能性があります。これまでのところ、世界保健機関（WHO）の「飲料水水質ガイドライン」や欧州飲料水指令には、飲料水中のテリウム（IV）濃度に関する指針値は設けられていません。飲料水中のテリウム（IV）レベルを監視するためには、未修飾のscTRACE Goldを用いたアノードストリッピングボルタンメトリー（ASV）が推奨されます。この方法では、90秒の析出時間を用いることで、1 µg/Lから60 µg/Lの濃度範囲でテリウム（IV）を定量することが可能です。scTRACE Gold電極は、機械的研磨などの大がかりなメンテナンスを必要としません。測定は、実験室では884 Professional VA、または現場では946 Portable VA Analyzerを用いて行うことができます。

研究では、2電極、3電極、または4電極セルの構成により、さまざまな実験配置が可能です。実験の要件に応じて、ある構成が他の構成よりも適している場合があります。そのため、これら3つの状況における適切な電極配置を、この技術資料で定義しています。 例として、酸性媒体中で白金の酸化が行われる際、INTELLO搭載のVIONICのセカンドセンス（S2）を用いて対極の電位を測定します。溶液中に溶け出した白金が結果に影響を与える可能性があるため、対極の電位をモニターできることが重要です。

The presence of copper in fuel ethanol blends has gained considerable attention since Cu2+ catalyzes oxidative reactions in gasoline leading to olefin decomposition and gum formation. Cu2+ in ethanol can easily be determined using anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in ethanol/gasoline blends without any sample pretreatment.

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of chromium(VI) in electronic components can be carried out by polarography in ammonia buffer pH 9.6.

The concentration of Cu in seawater is determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in acetate buffer on a mercury film electrode (MFE). Gallium is added to overcome zinc interferences.

The concentration of Fe is determined polarographically in phosphoric acid. The method is suitable for iron in concentrations in the ppm range. Fe(II) and Fe(III) show signals with the same sensitivity

The concentration of nickel in ethylene glycol can be determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) after the organic matrix is destroyed by UV digestion.

Germanium is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE using aqueous sulfuric acid as supporting electrolyte and pyrocatechol violet as complexing agent. It is possible to determine 20 µg/L Ge in a sample containing 150 g/L Zn, 3 g/L Cd and 1 mg/L Pb.

Cr(VI) is determined at the HMDE in an electrolyte containing ethylenediamine and acetate. Because Cr(III) is electrochemically inactive, all Cr has to be oxidised prior to analysis.

For the determination of heavy metals in wine, UV digestion is required to mineralize the sample. The determination of platinum and rhodium is carried out with adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE.

Total chromium can be determined in wastewater samples. UV digestion is necessary to remove interfering organic matter before the analysis. Complete oxidation of Cr(III) to Cr(VI) is guaranteed by an additional UV irradiation step at pH > 4.

Cd and Pb can be determined in seawater samples in the ng/L concentration range by anodic stripping voltammetry on a mercury film electrode (MFE).

Determination of 1-methyl-nicotinamide hydrochloride in a standard using Na2CO3 as electrolyte.

Determination of clothiapine in a pharmaceutical standard.

Determination of aluminum with Eriochrome Blue Black R at 60 °C in albumin lyophilizate after a wet digestion.

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Co in hydrochloric acid (37.8%).

Determination of Cr, Mn, and Ti in a PTA solution containing HCl.

The concentration of Se(IV) in zinc plant electrolyte is determined by cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV) in ammonium sulfate electrolyte containing EDTA and Cu. The Cu concentration has to be adapted to the sample and the deposition time. With voltammetry only free selenium is determined, therefore it has to be taken into consideration that selenium forms sparingly soluble compounds with numerous cations (e.g. Fe2(SeO3 )3 with Ks = 2·10-31).

The concentration of Fe(total) is determined by polarography in oxalate buffer pH 2. This method is suitable for iron concentrations in the mg/L range.

鉄は人間の食事に不可欠な要素で、多くの天然水や処理水中に含まれています。そのため、世界保健機関 (WHO) は健康をベースとした鉄の指針値を発表していません。地表水中に高濃度の鉄が含まれている場合、産業排水の存在、あるいは他の事業や汚染源からの流出を指し示している可能性があります。このため、環境サンプルや産業サンプルにおける正確かつ迅速で高精度な低濃度の鉄の測定は非常に重要です。これは、このApplication Bulletinにて説明されているメソッドによって実施することができます。

このApplication Bulletinでは、鉄、銅、およびバナジウムの成分のボルタンメトリー測定について書かれています。FeもCuもVも、吸着ストリッピングボルタンメトリー (AdSV) によるHMDEでカテコール錯体として測定することができます。Fe(II)およびFe(III)は、リン酸緩衝液またはPIPES電解質にて、いずれの種にも同感度でFe(total) として測定されます。CuおよびVはPIPES緩衝液で測定されます。メソッドは、これらの金属濃度が重要とされる地下水、飲料水、および地表水の調査に主に適しています。しかしこのメソッドは、もちろん他のマトリックスでの微量分析にも用いることができます。PIPES緩衝液におけるこの3つ全ての成分の検出限界は、0.5～1 µg/Lであり、リン酸緩衝液における鉄の検出限界はおよそ5 µg/Lです。

このApplication Bulletinでは、マルチモード電極での鉄の測定のための2つのメソッドについて説明しています。DMEを用いたポーラログラフィーによる測定であるメソッド1は、濃度が β(Fe) > 200 μg/L である場合に推奨されます。このメソッドにおいて線形範囲は β(Fe) = 800 μg/L 以下です。濃度 < 200 μg/L の場合HMDE を用いたボルタンメトリーによる測定であるメソッド2が推奨されます。このメソッドの検出限界は β(Fe) = 2 μg/L で、定量下限は β(Fe) = 6 μg/L です。沈殿物によってメソッドの感度が高まることはありません。鉄(II) および鉄(III) の感度は、いずれのメソッドにおいても同じです。このメソッドは、水サンプルに含まれる鉄の測定のために開発されました。例えば海水などの高濃度のカルシウムおよびマグネシウムが含まれる水サンプルでは、対応する金属水酸化物の沈殿を防ぐために、わずかに修飾された電解質が用いられます。このメソッドは、適切な分解を行った後に、有機物負荷を伴うサンプル (廃水、飲料、生体液、医薬品、または原油製品) にも用いることができます。

Diazepam belongs to the 1,4-benzodiazepine group of compounds, which are used for medical purposes as tranquilizers and antidepressants. This Bulletin describes the determination of diazepam in tablets and body fluids (blood, serum, urine) by means of differential pulse polarography. If a Britton-Robinson buffer pH = 2.8 with a methanol volume fraction of 20% is used as the supporting electrolyte then a pronounced reduction peak is obtained at -0.73 V; this allows diazepam concentrations even below 0.05 µg/mL to be determined in blood. The necessary sample preparation steps are also dealt with in this Bulletin.

This Application Bulletin describes the determination of cadmium and lead at a mercury film electrode (MFE) by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). The mercury film is plated ex situ on a glassy carbon electrode and can be used for up to one day. With a deposition time of 30 s, the limit of detection is ß(Cd2+) = 0.02 µg/L and ß(Pb2+) = 0.05 µg/L. The linear working range for both elements goes up to approx. 50 μg/L using the same deposition time.

このApplication Bulletinは…

このApplication Bulletinでは、ビタミンB群の1つであるニコチン酸アミド (ビタミンPP) の測定について説明しています。溶液 (フルーツジュースなど)、ビタミンカプセルおよびマルチビタミン剤における測定のための手引きが示されています。測定の直線性の範囲も指定されています。ニコチン酸アミドの検出限界はおよそ 50 μg/L です。

硫化物および亜硫酸塩は、全く問題なくポーラログラフィーによって測定することができます。硫化物ではポーラログラフィーはアルカリ性溶液にて実施され、亜硫酸塩では弱酸性の一次溶液にて実施されます。このメソッドは医薬品 (輸液)、廃水や排ガス水、写真現像液などの分析に適しています。

生体サンプル (例えば牛乳や羊毛など) の劣化後は、しばしばシステイン/シスチン比率の確認が重要です。このApplication Bulletinでは、2種類のアミノ酸のポーラログラフィーによる同時測定について説明しています。この測定は DME で過塩素酸溶液にて実施されます。タンパク質含有量の高いサンプルでは、測定をアルカリ性溶液で行う必要性があります。

「モリブデンは植物が育つための必須微量元素です。これは天然水に微量しか含まれていないため、非常に高感度のメソッドが必要とされます。以下のポーラログラフィー・メソッドを用いることで、50 ng/L あたり 5·10-10 mol/Lを測定することが可能です。メソッドの原則は、水銀電極で吸着されるMoO2L22錯体を形成するためのモリブデンイオン MoO42- および錯化剤 8-ヒドロキシ-7-ヨードキノリン-5-スルホン酸 (H2L) 間の反応に基づいています。吸着されたモリブデン (VI) はモリブデン (V) 錯体に電気化学的に還元されます。水素イオンは、同様に新たに電気化学的還元が可能なモリブデン (VI) 錯体を自発的に生成するべく、再び酸化モリブデン (V) 溶液に現れます。この触媒反応が、高感度メソッドの理由です。タングステン(W(VI)は、実質的にモリブデン同様の電気化学的挙動を見せますが、このApplication Bulletinではその詳細については説明していません。」

This Bulletin describes a simple polarographic method for the determination of quinine in drinks and tablets. Whereas in drinks quinine can be determined directly, in the case of tablets it must first be extracted. The limit of quantification is 0.2 mg/L or 4 μg/tablet.

これまでセレンの測定は常に信頼度の低いものか、または複雑なメソッドを要するものでした。しかしながら、セレンは必須微量元素である一方 (植物性および動物性組織における含有量は約10 μg/kg)、有毒性の高い物質でもあるため (閾値0.1 mg/m3)、ミクロ範囲における測定を網羅することは大変重要です。カソードストリッピングボルタンメトリー (CSV) により、ρ(Se(IV)) = 0.3 μg/L までに至る質量濃度を測定することが可能となります。

Wine sometimes contains heavy metals which can be precipitated out by the addition of potassium ferrocyanide. Generally, these are quantities of iron ranging between 1 and 5 mg, and exceptionally up to 9 mg Fe/L. Zinc, copper, and lead – in descending order of content – may also be present. To estimate the quantity of potassium ferrocyanide necessary for the «décassage of the wine», only very complicated and relatively inaccurate methods have been described until now.This Bulletin permits accurate results to be obtained easily with a simple instrumentation. The results are available in a short time.

According to the described method, NTA and EDTA can be determined in mass concentrations of 0.05 mg/L up to 25 mg/L in polluted water and wastewater.At first NTA and EDTA are converted to the corresponding Bi complexes by addition of Bi3+ ions at a pH value of 2.0. As these Bi complexes have significantly different peak potentials, they can be determined simultaneously by DP polarography. The interfering anions nitrite, sulfite, and sulfide are removed from the sample by acidification and purging. Interfering cations are removed by cation exchange; any NTA or EDTA heavy metal complexes present in the sample are disintegrated during this procedure. To remove surfactants and other organic components interfering with the analysis, the sample solution is run through a column filled with non-polar adsorber resin.

Fructose (fruit sugar) is the only ketose that occurs naturally. It is found free in a mixture with dextrose (honey, sweet fruits, tomatoes) or bound as a component of cane sugar and various starch-like carbohydrates. As fructose tastes sweeter than dextrose, it finds great use as a sweetening agent.In 1932, the polarographic reducibility of sugar was described for the first time by Heyrovsky and Smoler. The following method can be used to determine the fructose content of fruit, fruit juice and honey quantitatively.

Two methods are described for the determination of chromium: a biamperometric titration and a polarographic analysis.

The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive 2002/95/EC stipulates maximum limits for the hazardous metals cadmium, lead and mercury as well as the hexavalent chromium and the brominated flame retardants in electrical and electronic products. To ensure compliance, reliable analysis methods are required.This poster deals with the wet-chemical determination of trace concentrations of the six RoHS-restricted substances in a wide variety of materials including metals, electrotechnical components, plastics and wires. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321, the metals lead, cadmium and mercury are best determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) and the flame retardants PBB and PBDE are quantified by direct-injection ion chromatography (IC) using spectrophotometric detection. Chromium(VI) can be determined either by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) or IC. Both methods are very sensitive and meet prescribed RoHS limits.

A convenient adsorptive cathodic stripping voltammetric (AdCSV) method has been developed for trace determination of uranium(VI) in drinking water samples using chloranilic acid (CAA). The presence of various matrix components (KNO3, Cl-, Cu2+, organics) can impair the determination of the uranium-CAA complex. The interferences can be mitigated, however, by appropriate selection of the voltammetric parameters. While problematic water samples still allow uranium determination in the lower µg/L range, in slightly polluted tap water samples uranium can be determined down to the ng/L range, comparable to the determination by current ICP-MS methods.

銀めっき液中の クロム(Cr) とセレン( Se) の濃度測定を説明します。

コバルト(Co)は、5-スルホサリチル酸を支持電解液に、ジメチルグリオキシム(DMG)を錯化剤として用い、滴下水銀電極(DME)で高濃度の金(Au)の存在下で測定できます。

シアン化金めっき液中の ニトリロ三酢酸(NTA) の濃度は、ポーラログラフィーによって Bi-NTA 錯体として測定されます。 標準添加標準液には Bi-NTA 標準液を用います。

溶液中の重金属イオンの測定は、最も成功を収めた電気化学のアプリケーションの1つです。この Application Note では、水道水のサンプル中の2つの検体の存在を測定するのにアノーディックストリッピングボルタンメトリーが用いられています。

This Application Note describes the polarographic determination of selenite in electroplating baths used in the production of copper indium gallium diselenide thin-film solar cells (CIGS cells). The CIGS absorber layer is electrodeposited on a molybdenum-coated substrate. Selenite analysis is carried out after dilution of the sample with sulfuric acid as supporting electrolyte.

Aluminum can be determined in drinking water by adsorptive stripping voltammetry at the HMDE using alizarin red S (DASA) as complexing agent. The method is linear up to 35 μg/L. The detection limit for this method is β(Al) = 1 μg/L, the limit of quantification is β(Al) = 3 μg/L. The sensitivity of the method cannot be increased by deposition.

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulatedheavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC62321 the determination of mercury in polymer materials can be carried out by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV)at a gold rotating disk electrode (Au-RDE).

The concentration of As(total) in zinc plant electrolyte is determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) on a lateral gold electrode in HCl electrolyte. Due to the high excess of zinc in the sample the deposition potential has to be adapted. A second potential approx. 100 mV more negative than the arsenic signal has to be applied to selectively oxidize interfering antimony. For sample preparation the sample was passed through a cation exchange column to reduce the concentration of zinc in the measuring solution.

The concentration of Fe(III) is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry with solochrome violet RS as complexing agent. All reagents have to be added in the order as listed below. Fe(II) does not show any signal. All reagents typically contain iron impurities. Therefore a subtraction of the reagent blank is recommended.

Sb is determined in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) after digestion in sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. The application is carried out with anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in hydrochloric acid.

Mo is determined by polarography at the SMDE in nitric acid solution.

Mercury can be determined in wastewater by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) on a gold rotating disk electrode (Au RDE). After the addition of hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide, digestion is done by UV irradiation.

Germanium can be determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE using acetate buffer as supporting electrolyte and catechol as complexing agent.

NTA and EDTA can be determined as their bismuth complexes at the DME.

Polarographic determination of cyanide in gases resulting from the incineration of plastic insulation materials after sample preparation.

Determination of ß-propiolactone in vaccine.

Voltammetric determination of boron in plasma using Beryllon III as a ligand [L. Thunus (1996), Anal. Chim. Acta 318: 303–308].

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, Co, and Fe in freeze-dried hops after a wet digestion.

Determination of Al in alkaline ZnO solution with Eriochrome Blue Black R at 60 °C.

Determination of Cd, Pb, and Cu in brine and NaOH.

This Application Note describes the polarographic determination of thiourea in electroplating baths used in the production of copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) or copper indium diselenide thin-film solar cells (CIS). Cadmium sulfide (CdS) from the electrolyte solution is deposited as a thin film on the CIS or CIGS absorber layer via chemical bath deposition (CBD).

This Application Note describes the polarographic determination of indium in electroplating baths used in the production of copper indium gallium diselenide thin-film solar cells (CIGS cells). The CIGS absorber layer is electrodeposited on the molybdenum-coated substrate. Indium analysis is carried out after dilution of the bath sample with sulfuric acid as supporting electrolyte.

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of lead and cadmium in polymer materials can be carried out by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) using ammonium oxalate buffer pH 2.

The concentration of nitrobenzene in aniline is determined by polarography in an ethanol / acetic acid electrolyte.

The Se(IV) concentration can be determined by cathodic Stripping Voltammetry (CSV) in an ammonium sulfate electrolyte. The analysis also functions in the presence of Cu. Se(IV) is determined in the first step. In order to register the entire content of Se, Se(VI) species are first reduced to Se(IV). This is handled by the 909 UV Digester at a pH value of between 7 and 9. The method requires practically no reagents and permits selenium speciation.

The concentration of Co in zinc plant electrolyte (neutral zinc sulfate solution) is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) in ammonia buffer with α-furildioxime as complexing agent.

The concentration of Pd in an activator bath is determined by polarography in ammonium chloride electrolyte.

The concentration of Ni and Co is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry at the HMDE with dimethylglyoxime (DMG) as complexing agent.

The concentration of Fe(total) is determined in deionized water. The method is suitable for iron concentrations down to the mid µg/L range. Electrochemical deposition is not applicable for this method. A subtraction of the reagent blank is recommended. Fe(II) and Fe(III) give signals with the same sensitivity.

Iron can be determined in ethanol by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE. PIPES buffer is used as supporting electrolyte and catechol as complexing agent at a pH value of 7.0.

Ti is determined in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) after digestion in sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) with mandelic acid as complexing agent is used for this application.

Selenium is determined by cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV) at the hanging mercury drop electrode (HMDE). Se(IV) is deposited on the surface of the mercury drop in sulfuric acid electrolyte under addition of copper ions as Cu xSe y.Wastewater samples containing organic contaminants have to be digested by UV irradiation before analysis. In addition, the sample has to undergo a second irradiation step at pH 7−9 to reduce Se(VI) to Se(IV), since only Se(IV) is electrochemically active.

Thallium and cadmium can be determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) at the HMDE (Tl) and polarography at the DME (Cd), respectively using aqueous hydrochloric acid as supporting electrolyte. Since Cd is present in high excess and would therefore interfere with the determination of thallium, a post electrolysis procedure is applied to remove the co-deposited metal from the mercury drop.

Ni and Co are determined in triphosphate by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) in ammonia buffer at pH 9.5 with addition of dimethylglyoxime (DMG).

Platinum in urine can be determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) after UV digestion of the sample.

For the determination of nickel in white wine, UV digestion is required to mineralize the sample. The determination is done by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE in ammonia buffer with dimethylglyoxime (DMG).

Cd, Pb, and Cu can be determined in one run in acetate buffer by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV).

Cr(III) forms an electrochemically active complex with diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), so does Cr(VI) after in situ reduction on the surface of the HMDE. Depending on the sample preparation procedure and the waiting time after the addition of the complexing agent, the different chromium species can be differentiated:Total active chromium [total concentration of Cr(VI) and free Cr(III)]:The measurement is carried out immediately after the addition of DTPA.; Cr(VI): Between the addition of DTPA and the start of the analysis a minimum waiting time of 30 min is necessary. During this waiting time the Cr(III)-DTPA complex becomes electrochemically inactive.; Cr(III): The difference between the total active Cr and Cr(VI).; Totalchromium: Determination of total active Cr after UV digestion.;

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) can be determined in vitamin preparations at the DME.

Determination of W(VI) in the organic phase after digestion

Determination of artemisinin and artesunate in a standard.

Determination (after digestion) of zinc, cadmium, lead, copper, nickel, and cobalt in fabrication powder of vitamin tablets.

Determination of Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, and Co in soybean oil after extraction by boiling with HCl under reflux.

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu in chili sauce after digestion UV.

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Co in FeCl3 solution of 40%.

Determination of Fe and Zn in a nickel sulfate bath containing surfactants after UV digestion.

Determination of Ni, Sb, Cd, Tl, and Cu in a neutral, highly concentrated zinc solution from the plating industry.

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, and Cr in triglyceride.

This Application Note describes the polarographic determination of cadmium in electroplating baths used in the production of copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) or copper indium diselenide thin-film solar cells (CIS). Cadmium sulfide (CdS) from the electrolyte solution is deposited as a thin film on the CIS or CIGS absorber layer via chemical bath deposition (CBD).

This Application Note describes the determination of gallium in electroplating baths used in the production of copper indium gallium diselenide thin-film solar cells (CIGS cells). The CIGS absorber layer is electrodeposited on a molybdenum-coated substrate. Gallium analysis using anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) is carried out after dilution of the sample with sulfuric acid as supporting electrolyte.

This Application Note describes the polarograhic determination of copper in electroplating baths used in the production of thin-film copper indium gallium diselenide solar cells (CIGS cells). The CIGS absorber layer is electrodeposited on a molybdenum-coated substrate.Copper analysis is carried out after dilution of the sample with sulfuric acid as supporting electrolyte.

The determination of nickel and cobalt in red wine using adsorptive stripping voltammetry can be carried out after UV digestion of the sample.

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of mercury in metallic materials can be carried out by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) at a gold rotating disk electrode (Au-RDE).

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of lead and cadmium in metallic materials can be carried out by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) using ammonium oxalate buffer pH 2.

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of chromium(VI) in polymer materials can be carried out by polarography in ammonia buffer pH 9.6.

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of mercury in electronic components can be carried out by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) at a gold rotating disk electrode (Au-RDE).

The EU directive on «Restriction of Hazardous Substances» (RoHS) requires the testing of four regulated heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI)) in electrotechnical products. After sample preparation according to IEC 62321 the determination of lead and cadmium in electronic components can be carried out by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) using ammonium oxalate buffer pH 2.

The concentration of Cr(VI) in cement is determined in tartrate electrolyte after acid extraction of the sample.

The concentration of of Sb(III) in zinc plant electrolyte is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) with chloranilic acid as complexing agent. In this method high copper concentrations do not interfere. An approx. 10-fold excess of lead interferes, since it shows a signal close to the antimony. With the parameters given below the working range of this method is 1 - 30 µg/L antimony(III) with respect to the concentration in the measuring vessel.

The concentration of Pb in zinc sulfate solution is determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in hydrochloric acid electrolyte.

The concentration of Te(IV) in Zn plant electrolyte is determined by cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV) in ammonium sulfate electrolyte containing EDTA and Cu. To get a proper complexation of the interfering Zn a high amount of EDTA is necessary at pH 3.4.

The concentration of Pb in Sn soldering contacts is determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in an electrolyte containing citrate, oxalic acid, HCl, and cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide.

The concentration of Fe is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry at the HMDE with 1-nitroso-2-naphthol (1N2N) as complexing agent.

The concentration of Al is determined by adsorptive stripping voltammetry at the HMDE. The method is suitable for Al in concentrations in the range of 0.1 ppb to approx. 40 ppb Al3+. Pb2+ ions do not interfere up to a concentration ratio Pb:Al = 10:1. Due to the slow complex formation of Al with solochrome violet RS the measuring solution was heated to 40 °C for 10 min prior to the determination. For standard addition a solution of Al with solochrome violet RS complex was used. All reagents have to be added in the order as listed below.

The concentration of Fe is determined in water samples by adsorptive stripping voltammetry with 1-nitroso-2-naphthol as complexing agent. All reagents have to be added in the order as listed below. All reagents typically contain iron impurities. Therefore a subtraction of the reagent blank is recommended. Fe(II) and Fe(III) show different sensitivities. Therefore the sample should only contain one of the iron species. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) can be added to the measuring solution and to the Fe(III) standard solution if both Fe(II) and Fe(III) are present in the sample to determine the concentration of total iron. A final concentration of ascorbic acid of 0.002 mol/L is suitable.

The concentration of Fe(total) is determined in monoethylene glycol by adsorptive stripping voltammetry with 2,3-dihydroxy-naphthalene as complexing agent. The detection limit of the method is approx. 0.1 µg/L with respect to the content in the measuring vessel. If no bromate is added to the supporting electrolyte the sensitivity of the method is about 10 times lower. All reagents have to be added in the order as listed below. Fe(II) and Fe(III) give signals with the same sensitivity. All reagents typically contain iron impurities, especially the 2,3-dihydroxy-naphthalene. Therefore a subtraction of the reagent blank is recommended.

The concentration of Fe(total) is determined in wastewater after UV digestion. The method is suitable for iron concentrations down to the low μg/L range. Stripping voltammetry is not applicable for this method. Fe(II) and Fe(III) generate signals with identical sensitivity.

Gold can be determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in the µg/l range at the Ultra Trace Graphite electrode. The solution should not contain halide ions.

Zn and Pb are determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) in acetate buffer at pH 4.6.

Co is determined in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) after digestion in sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide. The application is carried out with adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) in ammonia buffer with dimethylglyoxime (DMG) as complexing agent.

Cr(VI) is determined by polarography at the SMDE in acetate solution containing ethylene diamine to mask interfering copper ions.Only Cr(VI) is electrochemically active. It is for that reason that all chromium compounds must be present before the analysis as CR(VI), which is guaranteed by UV radiation with a pH > 4.

Thallium in wastewater is determined in acetate buffer in presence of EDTA by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). Samples with organic substances have to undergo UV digestion before analysis.

Determination of nickel and cobalt in wastewater samples through adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry (AdSV). The wastewater samples first undergo a UV digestion in accordance with DIN 38406 Part 16.

Formaldehyde is determined polarographically at the DME in alkaline solution.

三リン酸塩（トリホスフェート）中のマンガンは、HMDE の陽極ストリッピング ボルタンメトリー (ASV) で測定できます。 サンプルは最初に分解させ、次にアルカリ溶液中で測定します。

Cadmium, lead, and copper are determined by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) at the HMDE using aqueous nitric acid as supporting electrolyte.

Cr(VI) is determined with the complexant DTPA at pH 6.2 by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE.

Quinine can be determined by polarography at the DME using Britton-Robinson buffer at pH = 7.0 as supporting electrolyte.

Zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper can be determined in red wine after UV digestion by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV).

飲料水中のマンガン（Mn）は、HMDE の陽極ストリッピング ボルタンメトリー (ASV) によって測定できます。 測定はアルカリ溶液中で行われ、金属間化合物による干渉を防ぐために亜鉛溶液を添加します。

Nickel and cobalt can be determined in drinking water in one run by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV). Dimethylglyoxime (DMG) is used as complexing agent at a pH value of 9.3.

The concentration of elemental sulfur in gasoline is determined by polarography in acetate containing toluene/methanol electrolyte. The determination is linear up to 2 mg/L with respect to the concentration of elemental sulfur in the measuring vessel. Organic sulfur compounds are not detected with this method. The method is not suitable for diesel fuel, because diesel is not completely soluble in the electrolyte used. The gas wash bottle (6.2405.030) for inert gas supply has to be filled with supporting electrolyte.

Zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper can be determined in wastewater samples after UV digestion by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) according to DIN 38406 part 16.

Copper, iron, and vanadium can be determined in salt samples in the µg/kg concentration range by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE. No sample preparation is necessary.

Nickel can be determined in concentrated zinc solutions by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE using ammonia buffer as supporting electrolyte and dimethylglyoxime (DMG) as complexing agent. The determination of cobalt does not work under these conditions as the very high Zn2+ concentration interferes with the Co signal. Therefore, an alternative complexing agent has to be used: α-benzil dioxime in ammonia buffer under addition of sodium nitrite.

Nicotinamide (vitamin B3, vitamin PP) can be determined in vitamin preparations at the DME.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can be determined in fruit and vegetable juices at the DME without sample preparation.

Rhodium and platinum can be determined in water samples after UV digestion and complexation by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE.

Nickel and cobalt can be determined in seawater by adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) at the HMDE.

Determination of styrene monomers in polystyrene. Free styrene is converted to a polarographically active pseudonitrosite.

4-Carboxybenzaldehyde can be reduced directly on the DME in a solution containing ammonium.

Determination of cysteine and cystine in caseinate after sample preparation with NaOH.

Determination of cysteine and cystine in an infusion solution.

Determination of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in vitamin capsules after sample digestion.

The concentration of Pd in pharmaceutical products is determined by polarography after wet digestion.

Determination of cadmium and lead in herbicide powder containing 37% copper after digestion.

Determination of manganese, iron, and molybdenum (after digestion) in fabrication powder of vitamin tablets.

Determination of zinc in a herbal pharmaceutical drug against cancer of the prostate.

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu in whiskey after UV digestion.

Determination of Hg in chili sauce after UV digestion.

Determination of Zn, Pb, Cu, and Fe in sugar after wet digestion.

Determination of coumarin and tartrazine in vodka.

Determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Co in Javelle water.

Determination of Cu in a nickel sulfate bath containing surfactants after UV digestion.

Simultaneous determination of Sb and Bi in an alkaline ZnO solution.

Simultaneous determination of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Fe, Ni, and Co in 50% NaOH.

Determination of Cd, Pb, and Sb in acetic acid.

Determination of Ni, Co, and Fe in a PTA solution containing HCl.

Determination of Fe, Pb, Cd, and Cu in Co(Ac)2 solution using the MME.

鉛は強い毒性を有すること、鉛塩は生物に吸収されやすいことで知られています。酵素反応の干渉により、鉛は人体のあらゆる部分に影響を及ぼし得ます。これは脳および腎臓に重大な損傷を与える原因となり、また血液脳関門を通過する可能性があります。水道管システムに使われる鉛地金によって引き起こされる慢性鉛中毒のケースは、よく知られています。そのため、飲料水に含まれる鉛含有量の管理は大変重要です。多くの国々では (EUやアメリカなど) 飲料水に含まれる鉛の限度は10～15 μg/Lと定められています。このApplication Bulletinにて説明されているメソッドにより、これらの濃度を確実に測定することができます。測定は、scTRACE Gold電極に施された銀被膜におけるアノードストリッピングボルタンメトリーによって行われれます。

銅は、そのままの金属の形で自然界に存在する数少ない金属物質の一つです。さらに融解が比較的容易という事もあり、青銅器時代から既にこの金属は広く使われてきました。今日では、その電気伝導度の高さおよびその他の物理的特性から、銅はこれまで以上に重要となってきています。植物や動物には不可欠な微量元素である一方で、微生物にとっては有毒です。この技術資料では、スクリーンプリント電極であるscTRACE Gold 電極を用いた陽極ストリッピング電圧電流法 (ASV) による銅の測定について紹介しています。蒸着時間 30 秒の場合、検出限界はおよそ 0.5 μg/L です。

This Application Bulletin describes the determination of arsenic in water samples by anodic stripping voltammetry using the scTRACE Gold sensor. This method makes it possible to distinguish between As(total) and As(III). With a deposition time of 60 s, the limit of detection for As(total) is 0.9 µg/L, for As(III) it is 0.3 µg/L.

このApplication Bulletinでは、水銀膜電極 (MFE) での亜鉛の測定について説明しています。亜鉛は、カドミウムおよび鉛と同時に測定することもできます。MFE での銅の測定はできません。水銀膜は GC 電極上にエクスシトゥ（ex-situ）でめっきされており、半日から1日の間使用することができます。亜鉛は、アノードストリッピングボルタンメトリー (ASV) によって水銀膜電極で測定することができます。多くのサンプルに自然に含まれている銅の存在は、金属間化合物形成の理由から、測定に影響を及ぼします。その結果、測定された亜鉛濃度が低過ぎることになります。ガリウムと銅の金属間化合物は亜鉛と銅の化合物より安定性が高いため、ガリウムを添加することで、干渉をある程度取り除くことができます。蒸着時間 10 秒の場合、検出限界は β(Zn2+) = 0.15 μg/L です。線状の稼動範囲はおよそ 300 μg/L までになります。蒸着時間 10 秒の場合、メソッドは亜鉛含有量 10 μg/L から 150 μg/L のサンプルに適しています。濃度の比較的低いサンプルでは、蒸着時間が例えば 30 秒まで増加した場合に、より信頼度の高い結果が得られます。濃度のより高いサンプルは希釈しなければなりません。