Electrochemistry applications

This application note demonstrates EQCM D for simultaneous mass and dissipation analysis of Ni(OH)₂ electrodeposition.

Differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS) is used to monitor gaseous and volatile species during electrochemical reactions in situ.

Using disposable 11COND screen printed electrodes and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, conductivity in drinking water can be measured using only 100 µL samples.

EC-SERS enhances Raman sensitivity using electrochemically activated gold SPEs, enabling rapid, simplified pesticide detection without complex prep or instrumentation.

This application shows how EIS, combined with INTELLO and NOVA, tracks changes in internal battery resistance across SOC levels to study performance and aging mechanisms.

This Application Note presents DPV as a sensitive, selective method for detecting heavy metals in water, detailing setup, parameters, and advantages over other techniques.

This Application Note demonstrates square wave voltammetry for sensitive, reproducible quantification of paracetamol using a screen-printed electrode and INTELLO.

This Application Note explains manual and automated iR drop correction with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cautions against using less accurate methods.

By using an enzymatic sensor with a screen-printed electrode, producers can measure lactic acid production, thereby monitoring fermentation processes.

Advances in polymeric membranes and screen-printed technologies have enabled miniaturized, portable potentiometric sensors ideal for point-of-care analysis.

This Application Note discusses differential capacity analysis (DCA) and its impact on enhancing battery performance, with a focus on using the INTELLO platform.

This Application Note explains how researchers can determine the underlying chemistry and potential failure mechanisms from cycle testing batteries with INTELLO.

Free White Paper outlines the fundamental principles of the nitrogen reduction reaction. It then delves into the technical barriers hindering the industrialization of green ammonia production, their impact on final yield and selectivity, and potential strategies or research gaps to overcome these issues.

This Application Note compares SPELEC RAMAN and a standard Raman instrument by analyzing their performance in measuring single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT).

Explore how to construct simple and complex equivalent circuit models for fitting EIS data in this Application Note. Nyquist plots are shown for each example.

This Application Note presents the Mott-Schottky measurement, an extension of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), on a popular semiconducting material.

This Application Note presents a walkthrough of an experiment on 4-nitrothiophenol using hyphenated EC-Raman, a combination of Raman spectroscopy and electrochemistry.

Alamar Blue is monitored with fluorescence spectroelectrochemistry during its irreversible reduction to resorufin and further reversible reduction to dihydroresorufin.

Tafel analysis is an important electrochemical technique used to understand reaction kinetics. By studying the Tafel slope, it reveals the rate-determining steps in electrode reactions, aiding fields like corrosion and fuel cell research. This method helps industries optimize processes and improve device performance by tailoring materials and conditions for greater efficiency.

Low sensitivity has limited the use of Raman spectroscopy as a detection method. However, the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) effect has improved its effectivity for analytical use. Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and cytochrome c are analyzed by Raman spectroelectrochemistry as a proof of concept in this Application Note.

Electrochemical Raman (EC-Raman) spectroscopy enhances comprehension of energy storage devices by tracking physicochemical changes. This note details EC-Raman findings during nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery charge and discharge simulations.

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is one of the most promising ICPs due to its high conductivity, electrochemical stability, catalytic properties, high insolubility in almost all common solvents and interesting electrochromic properties (transparent in the doped state and colored in the neutral state). In this Application Note, PEDOT film is evaluated by spectroelectrochemical techniques.

Fentanyl, a powerful synthetic opioid, is illegally distributed worldwide. Overdosing can be fatal, causing symptoms like stupor, pupil changes, cyanosis, and respiratory failure. Just 2 mg of fentanyl can be lethal, depending on factors like body size and past usage. Given its severe impact, identifying and detecting fentanyl is crucial, as it has become a major public health crisis. Combining electrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (EC-SERS) with screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) offers a fast, effective, and precise method for detecting fentanyl.

The Devanathan-Stachurski cell (or «H cell») is successfully used to evaluate the permeation of hydrogen through sheets or membranes. As small amounts of hydrogen pass through the sheet or membrane, a very sensitive potentiostat is required for its detection. A study of the hydrogen permeation properties of different iron sheets is discussed in this Application Note while taking the instrumental requirements into account.

The development of a novel reflection cell for conventional electrodes facilitates the performance of spectroelectrochemical measurements. This device allows researchers to work in aqueous solutions as well as in organic media due to its chemical resistance.

Many electrochemical methods have been developed but are traditionally limited to aqueous media. Raman spectroelectrochemistry in organic solutions is an interesting alternative, but developing new EC-SERS procedures is still required. This Application Note demonstrates that the electrochemical activation of gold and silver electrodes enables the detection of dyes and pesticides in organic media.

White paper about Raman spectroscopy and electrochemistry and their combination (electrochemical Raman).

In this Application Note, hydrogen permeation experiments are conducted following the procedure described in the ASTM standard G148.

This White Paper introduces seamless measurements that are possible with VIONIC powered by INTELLO and applications that can benefit from this unique feature. The combination of software and new generation electronics provides data in real-time with no gaps or missed reactions.

This White Paper introduces the principles of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and the various ways it can be used for catalyst investigation. A case study and helpful glossary are provided to support your understanding.

In battery research, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a necessary tool to investigate the processes occurring at the electrodes. With a common three-electrode battery, EIS can be performed sequentially first at one electrode and then at the other electrode.

In this Application Note, the electrochemical properties of electrodes with a micrometer-size surface area are compared with the electrochemical properties of electrodes with millimeter-size surface area. The comparison is made through cyclic voltammetry in a Fe3+/Fe2+ (ferro/ferri) solution, and the differences in the voltammograms are explained with the different diffusion profiles at the electrode-electrolyte interface.

In this White Paper, details of the electronic (PGSTAT) and electrochemical cell grounding are presented together with the necessity of using a floating PGSTAT for different application and experimental examples. Due to the wide variation of experimental requirements and kinds of electrochemical cells, the use of an electrochemical instrument with a selectable floating feature (such as VIONIC) which brings additional versatility to the user is recommended.

Electrochemistry, spectroscopy, and spectroelectrochemistry (SEC) are widely used techniques in many fields. However, the data curves obtained from these analyses are quite varied, and not all electrochemical peaks and spectroscopic bands can be measured with the same procedures. This Application Note examines four tools included in the DropView 8400 and DropView SPELEC softwares to facilitate the measurement and analysis of the collected curves and data. The following measurement options are explained in detail: automeasurement, set on curve measurement, set free measurement, and set step measurement.

The study of the electrochemical behavior of platinum in acidic media is of crucial importance in fundamental electrochemistry and electrocatalysis. Most electrocatalytic processes occurring at Pt electrodes are highly sensitive to the structure of the platinum surface. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a widely used rapid measurement technique that provides both a qualitative and quantitative fingerprint of platinum surfaces. A comparison of results given by linear and staircase CVs is presented in this Application Note.

In this Application Note, analog and digital staircase potential signals are applied to a platinum working electrode in an acidic solution. The differences in measured currents are highlighted and compared with a similar experiment where the current is being calculated from the measured charge.

In this Application Note, stepwise dissolution measurement (SDM) is applied to aluminum samples coated with different materials, in order to gain insights in corrosion protection. The combination of the Autolab PGSTAT204 with the 1 L Autolab corrosion cell and the NOVA software provides the suitable setup to perform SDM and other corrosion experiments.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy or EIS has been used effectively to measure the polarization resistance for corrosion systems and for the determination of corrosion mechanisms.

In this application note, we demonstrate how to determine the lithium ion transference number of a commercial liquid binary lithium ion battery electrolyte, based on the very-low-frequency electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (VLF-EIS) method.

The DuoCoin Cell Holder is introduced. EIS measurements on a commercial coin cell battery are performed. Differences in impedance between the four-terminal configuration and two-terminal configuration is highlighted, putting in evidence the importance of having a direct four-terminal configuration, when low-impedance DUTs are investigated.

The Metrohm 800 Dosino is the workhorse of any automated liquid handling setup. This instrument can be conveniently used in combination with the NOVA software and integrated conveniently with electrochemical measurements performed with the Autolab systems.

This application note shows how it is possible with Metrohm Autolab PGSTATs and the Metrohm Autolab Optical Bench, to retrieve information about the mechanism and the kinetics of the back reaction, a side reaction which limits the performances of dye-sensitized solar cells.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a powerful technique which provides information about the processes occurring at the electrode-electrolyte interface. The data collected with EIS are modeled with a suitable electrical equivalent circuit. The fitting procedure will change the values of the parameters until the mathematical function matches the experimental data within a certain margin of error. In this Application Note, some suggestions are given in order to get acceptable initial parameters and to perform an accurate fitting.

The proton conductivity of membranes made of a proton conductive material is an essential quantity to be determined. In this application note, we present the results of an exemplary study of σDC(T) determined by impedance spectroscopy for a novel solid proton conductor in its dry state.

The relative permittivity εr, also known as dielectric constant, is of great importance in materials characterization. It can be defined as the ratio between the amount of electrical energy stored in a material and the amount of electrical energy stored in a vacuum. One of the easiest way to obtain the relative permittivity is to calculate it from capacitance values. In this Application Note, five techniques to retrieve capacity values have been compared.

Non-enzymatic ethanol sensor based on a nanostructured disposable screen-printed electrode.

This Application Note outlines GITT, a key technique for studying Li-ion battery kinetics, OCV, and diffusion, using INTELLO for streamlined control and analysis.

This Application Note evaluates corrosion in Type 430 stainless steel according to ASTM G5 with VIONIC powered by INTELLO and an ASTM-compliant corrosion cell setup.

This application explains ohmic iR drop in electrochemical cells, its causes, and strategies to minimize its impact for accurate and reliable potential measurements.

In recent years, field-effect transistors (FETs) have become more commonly used as a sensing platform for a multitude of electrochemical and biological applications. These devices are promising bioelectronic transducers that allow both low-potential operation and stable potentiometric measurements. FETs are now seen as an attractive alternative to using conventional electrochemical detection systems in the scientific community. This Application Note gives in-depth guidance about how to operate Metrohm DropSens bipotentiostat devices for the characterization of FETs and their use as transducers. A single μStat-i 400 device, a small and portable bipotentiostat and galvanostat, is used to demonstrate the experiments.

Spectroelectrochemical experiments not only provide outstanding qualitative information about samples, but also offer other quantitative data that can be considered when performing analyses. A single set of experiments allows analysts to obtain two calibration curves: one with the electrochemical data and another with the spectroscopic information. The concentration of tested samples is calculated by using both curves, confirming the obtained results by two different routes. In this Application Note, comparison between electrochemical and spectroscopic determinations demonstrates that the two methods measure uric acid (UA) indistinctively, with close agreement of the calculated values with empirical data.

In-situ spectroelectrochemistry provides dynamic electrochemical and spectroscopic information concurrently with the redox reaction occurring on the electrode surface. Although different spectroelectrochemical configurations can be used, simple equations explain how to relate electrochemistry and spectroscopy for each experimental setup. This Application Note describes how the quantification of one electrochemical parameter (the diffusion coefficient) is calculated from the spectroscopic data as a proof of this concept.

Many different configurations are made possible when using two-, three-, or four-electrode cell setups in research. Depending on the experimental requirements, one setup may be preferred over another. Therefore, the proper electrode arrangements for these three situations are defined in this Application Note. As an example, the potential at the counter electrode is measured during the platinum oxidation in acidic media, with the second sense (S2) of VIONIC powered by INTELLO. Since dissolved Pt in solution could bias the results, it is important to be able to monitor the potential of the counter electrode.

Capacitors are electronic components necessary for the success of the electronics industry. They have also become essential components of both electric and hybrid vehicles. Electrochemical tests, such as potentiostatic cyclic voltammetry, are used to check the performance of capacitors. VIONIC powered by INTELLO can perform both staircase and linear cyclic voltammetries (CV). This Application Note gives a comparison between the linear and the staircase potentiostatic cyclic voltammetries and highlights the necessity of using the linear CV to best study the performance of capacitors.

Spectroelectrochemistry is a multi-response technique that provides both electrochemical and spectroscopic information about a chemical system in a single experiment, i.e., it offers information from two different points of view. Spectroelectrochemistry focused on the UV/VIS region is one of the most important combinations because this allows us to obtain not only valuable qualitative information, but also outstanding quantitative results. In this application note, the degradation kinetics for 4-nitrophenol, a known pollutant, were determined using SPELEC.

Spectroelectrochemistry is a multi-response technique that provides electrochemical and spectroscopic information about a chemical system in a single experiment, i.e., it offers information from two different points of view. Raman spectroelectrochemistry could be considered as one of the best techniques for both the characterization and behavioral understanding of carbon nanotube films, as it has traditionally been used to obtain information about their oxidation-reduction processes as well as the vibrational structure. This application note describes how the SPELEC RAMAN is used to characterize single-walled carbon nanotubes by studying their electrochemical doping in aqueous solution as well as to evaluate their defect density.

Supercapacitors (also known as ultracapacitors, electrochemical capacitors, or double-layer capacitors) are electrochemical devices that have the ability to store and release charge and deliver high power densities over short periods of time. Their ability to store electrical energy efficiently and release electrical energy very quickly make them ideally suited for applications where short time backup power and peak power needs are critical.

In this application note, a combination of PGSTAT and electronic load is use to perform electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in a fuel cell operating at high currents.

The TSC SW Closed and TSC Battery cells are compact systems designed for measurements on air or moisture-sensitive materials, such as those used in batteries. In this document, two testing procedures are explained. The first procedure is withpotentiostatic cyclic voltammetry (CV), while the second is via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

In this application note, the combination between electrochemistry and spectroscopy is shown, with the oxidation of ferrocyanide to ferricyanide monitored with IR spectra taken at defined potential steps. The increase in absorbance at 425 nm corresponding to the formation ferricyanide.

The Autolab Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) is an optional module for the Autolab PGSTAT which can be used to control a 6 MHz crystal oscillator. This technique can be used to perform electrogravimetric measurements with detection limits in the sub μg range.

The mass transport characteristics of the diffusion controlled oxidation and reduction of the ferri/ferro cyanide couple was studied using the Autolab RDE with a low noise liquid Hg contact.

The rotating cylinder electrode (RCE) is successfully used in a laboratory environment to generate a turbulent flow at the surface of a sample, simulating realistic pipe flow conditions. In this application note, the corrosion rate is measured and compared between quiescent and turbulent flow conditions, while keeping all the other experimental conditions unchanged. The linear polarization (LP) technique was used together with the RCE (with and without rotation).

Corrosion of metals is a problem seriously affecting not only many industrial sectors, but also private life, resulting in enormous costs. In this application note, the results gained during electrochemical corrosion studies on different metals are compared to literature data.

This Application Note is based on the ASTM standard G150, developed to test the resistance of stainless steel, and otheralloys related to stainless steel, on pitting formation at elevated temperature. This is achieved by determining the potential-independent critical pitting temperature (CPT), defined as the lowest temperature at which pitting evolution occurs. The CPT experiment consists of applying a potential to the specimen while the cell temperature is raised and recording the current.

Electrochemical methods provide an alternative to traditional methods used to determine the rate of corrosion. For example, corrosion rates, the rates at which a specimen corrodes, can be calculated from simple electrochemical measurements like a linear sweep voltammetry (LSV).

This application note presents the experimental details and an overview of the most important findings from the EIS and CV experiment to study the structure of a model solid electrolyte interface forming on a planar glassy carbon electrode in contact with a typical organic battery electrolyte.

The main components of a battery are the positive and negative electrodes, together with the electrolyte, which provides only the ionic conductivity. The most common electrolytes are in the liquid state. Therefore, a separator is needed to provide a physical separation between the electrodes. The separator is soaked with electrolyte. The MacMullin number is a parameter used to determine the quality of a separator, in terms of ionic conductivity, when soaked with an electrolyte. The MacMullin number can be calculated, using the results of data fitting of two EIS experiments and the geometric factors of the measurement cells. In this application note, a commercial electrolyte is employed, together with a porous filter, used as a separator.

A nickel metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery but, for the anode, instead of cadmium, it has a hydrogen absorbing alloy. Like in NiCd batteries, nickel is the cathode. The voltage output of such packs is directly proportional to the number of single cells in the pack. In some cases, the total voltage can exceed the maximum of 10 V that is measurable by the Autolab potentiostat/galvanostat. To apply and measure voltages greater than 10 V, we have developed a voltage multiplier that increases the voltage range of the Autolab.

This Application Note presents the procedure to determine the responsitivity value for calibrating the white lights of the Metrohm Autolab Optical Bench.

DC techniques do not provide any information about the internal dynamics of the PV device. Therefore, additional information can be obtained using time-dependent and frequency-dependent measurements. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in particular, offers the possibility to investigate the behavior of the device in the frequency domain under operating conditions, at various light intensities.

The operational behavior of a fuel cell stack is usually evaluated by determining the polarization and power density curves of the cell. These curves provide a quick characterization of the stack performance and an assessment of its optimal operating conditions (temperature, humidity, electrocatalyst, ion-exchange membrane).

To overcome the various technical problems, many different fuel cell types have been developed. In this Application Note, proton exchange membrane, direct methanol and solid oxide fuel cells are discussed in more detail.

In the application note AN-EIS-004 on equivalent circuit models, an overview of the different circuit elements that are used to build an equivalent circuit model was given. After identifying a suitable model for the system under investigation, the next step in the data analysis is estimation of the model parameters. This is done by the non-linear regression of the model to the data. Most impedance systems come with a data-fitting program. In this application note, the way NOVA is uses to fit the data is shown.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely used multidisciplinary technique for characterizing the behavior of complex electrochemical systems. EIS is employed in the study of a range of complex systems including batteries, catalysis, and corrosion processes. This Application Note focuses on the basic principles of EIS measurements.

Convolution voltammetry consists essentially of a voltammetric, chronoamperometric, or chronocoulometric experiment followed by a mathematical transformation - convolution. Using a convolution method, the effect of the decrease of the concentration gradient can be eliminated from the total response of the electrode. This application note explains how the convolution in NOVA works.

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is important to the functional readiness of a fuel cell. Rotating ring disk electrode (RRDE) experiments allow the reaction to be studied in hydrodynamic conditions to determine kinetic properties via the Levich and Koutecký-Levich equations. Mechanistic information is simultaneously obtained from the reaction of intermediates at the secondary (ring) electrode. This application note describes how the RRDE from Metrohm Autolab can be used to study the ORR.

To improve the performance of electrochemical energy storage devices like batteries and supercapacitors, one can focus on enhancing the ion conductivity (ƠDC) of the electrolyte. It is a common method for obtaining ƠDC values of different electrolyte systems, to carry out electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) experiments, at different temperatures, in a 2-electrode setup.

A basic overview of the working principle of a potentiostat/galvanostat is presented. Depending on the application, the connections of the instrument to the electrochemical cell can be (or must be) set up in different ways. Below, the three commonly used electrochemical cell setups are discussed together with the role of the electrodes used in electrochemical measurements.

This document describes a very simple procedure that can be used to produce small deposits of platinum on a goldsubstrate. This simple procedure is based on an electrochemical process known as displacement deposition, during which the deposition of a noble metal occurs by the oxidation of a precursor metal adlayer deposited on the substrate, at open circuit potential (OCP).

A reference electrode has a stable and well-defined electrochemical potential (at constant temperature), against which the applied or measured potentials in an electrochemical cell are referred. A good reference electrode is therefore stable and non-polarizable. In other words, the potential of such an electrode will remain stable in the used environment and also upon the passage of a small current. This application note lists the most used reference electrodes, together with their range of use.

The International Standard ISO 17463 describes the determination of the anticorrosive properties of high impedance organic protective coatings on metals. This technique uses cycles composed of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements, cathodic polarizations and potential relaxation. This application note shows the compliance of the Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT M204 and flat cell with the standard ISO 17463.

The rotating cylinder electrode (RCE) is a technique used in corrosion research to simulate in a laboratory environment the turbulent flow which usually occurs when liquids are transported through pipelines. The RCE is used to generate a turbulent flow at the surface of a sample, simulating the pipe flow conditions. Experiments that involve an RCE are regulated by the ASTM G185 standard. In this application note, The RCE with a 1018 carbon steel cylinder sample was used with the linear polarization (LP) measurement technique.

The ASTM standard G100 is an electrochemical method to test localized corrosion of aluminum 3003-H14 and other alloys. A cyclic galvanostatic staircase polarization (galvanostaircase) is composed of an upward and a downward scan. The potential values at the end of each step are collected and linearly fitted, and the potential values at zero current are found.

In this Application Note, EIS is applied on three coated aluminium samples, before and after the stepwise dissolution measurement (SDM). This technique has been reviewed in the Application Note AN-COR-08.

A corrosion inhibitor is a substance that reduces the corrosion rate of a metal. A corrosion inhibitor is usually added in a small concentration to the corrosive environment. This application note shows how Metrohm Autolab instruments can be used to check the quality of inhibitors.

Corrosion refers to a process that involves deterioration or degradation of metal. The most common example of corrosion is the formation of rust on steel. Most corrosion phenomena are of electrochemical nature and consist of at least two reactions on the surface of the corroding metal.

In this application note, we demonstrate how to determine the through-plane tortuosity τ of a commercial lithium ion battery cathode material with known porosity and coating thickness, based on the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) method.

In this application note, we demonstrate how to determine the binary diffusion coefficient of a commercial liquid binary lithium ion battery electrolyte based on a galvanostatic pulse polarization method.

The TSC SW closed and TSC battery cells are compact systems designed for measurement of air or moisture sensitive materials, such as those materials used in rechargeable batteries. These cells offer well-controlled environment for the in-temperature measurement of solid and gel like materials in contact with metal electrodes in planar geometry. For example, battery active materials, ionically conductive solid-state electrolytes and battery separators can be tested using these cells. In this experiment, standard resistors of 100 Ω are used in both cells to understand the cell effects, if any, on the measurements.

During charge and discharge of a Li-ion battery, lithium ions are transported from one electrode through the electrolyte to the other electrode. Knowing the chemical diffusion coefficient of electrode materials is crucial. The potentiostatic intermittent titration technique (PITT) is one of the most used techniques to retrieve insights on the diffusion coefficient of the electrode active materials.

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are one of the most important energy storage devices in the market. A typical Li-ion battery is usually composed of one or more cells. Characterization of Li-ion cells and batteries usually involves the galvanostatic charge and discharge during various cycles.

The Metrohm 858 Professional Sample Processor is a robotic liquid handling system capable of handling large series of samples automatically. This instrument provides a platform that can be directly controlled by the NOVA software and combined with the Autolab potentiostat/galvanostat for automated high-throughput electrochemical measurements.

Automatic sample handling and analysis is very convenient for routine measurements on large number of samples. Metrohm offers a wide range of high performance liquid handling devices that can be combined with the Autolab product range and can be directly controlled by the NOVA software.

In this document, a procedure to calibrate the LED light of the Metrohm Autolab Optical Bench is presented. The procedure can be applied to the single-wavelength LED lights. Calibration is performed in order to relate the LED light intensity to the LED driver current. In this way, it is possible to correct the light intensity values when the distance between the solar cell under test and the LED light is changed. Additonally, the calibration allows the user to perform measurements on solar cells while specifying the light intensity values, instead of the LED driver current.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) are currently subject of intense research in the framework of renewable energies as a low-cost photovoltaic (PV) device. To characterize photovoltaic devices, two additional frequency domain methods can be used, based on the modulation of the light intensity. These two methods are Intensity modulated photovoltage spectroscopy (IMVS): measurement of the transfer function between the modulated light intensity and the generated AC voltage, and Intensity modulated photocurrent spectroscopy (IMPS): measurement of the transfer function between the modulated light intensity and the generated AC current.This Application Note illustrates the use of the Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT302N equipped with a FRA32M module, in combination with the Autolab Optical Bench kit to perform IMVS and IMPS characterization of photovoltaic devices.

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) are currently the subject of intense research in the context of renewable energies as a low-cost photovoltaic (PV) device. Electricity generated from a PV produces zero emissions, is modular, and can produce energy anywhere the sun shines. The standard characterization technique of a PV device consists in the determination of the DC current-voltage curves under different incident light intensities.

The use of impedance measurements on fuel cells under load makes it possible to study the influence of the different fuel cell elements on the behavior and (if detectable) on the ageing of the fuel cell. To perform high current density measurements, the Autolab systems can be connected to a third party electronic load. This extends the measurable range of the instrument by several current decades.

In this Application Note the use of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) for the characterisation of PEM fuel will be demonstrated. It will be shown that EIS is a powerful diagnostic tool for the determination of the following factors that can influence the performance of a PEM fuel cell.

A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that produces electricity and heat by electrochemically combining a fuel (typically hydrogen) and an oxidant (typically oxygen). The higher efficiency also results in much lower carbon dioxide emissions and negligible amounts of SOx and NOx (when reformed fuel is used) compared with fossil fuel-based technologies for the same power output.

In this application note, the advantage of recording the raw time domain data for each individual frequency during an electrochemical impedance measurement is described.

A typical electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) experimental setup consists of an electrochemical cell, a potentiostat/galvanostat, and a frequency response analyzer (FRA). This Application Note introduces common EIS experimental setups as well as details of the main experimental parameters.

The kinetic and mass transfer parameters of the electro-oxidation reaction of TEMPO were measured using the TSC Surface measuring cell for the Autolab Microcell HC system. The cell allows the study of electrochemical processes in liquid electrolytes in a three electrode configuration under temperature control.

In order to calculate the conductivity of an electrolyte, the cell constant of the cell must be known. The combination of the Metrohm Autolab PGSTAT204 equipped with the FRA32M module in combination with the Autolab Microcell HC setup was used for the determination of the conductivity cell constants of TSC1600 temperature controlled electrochemical cell.

The way low-impedance devices, like fuel cells and battery, are connected to a load influences their performances. In this document, a comparison of EIS results on a commercial Li-ion battery is shown. Different EIS measurements have been performed, changing the way the battery has been connected to the potentiostat.

In this application note, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is used to test a commercial battery connected in two different ways. In the first EIS measurement, the battery is connected in a two-terminal sensing configuration. In the second EIS measurement, the battery is connected in a four-terminal sensing (Kelvin sensing) configuration. The difference in how the leads are connected results in different measured impedance values for the battery.

Copper is arguably one of the most technologically relevant metals, especially for the semiconductor industry. The deposition process used in this industry is known as the dual-damascene process and it involves the electrodeposition of copper from an acidic cupric compound, in the presence of additives.This Application Note illustrates the use of the Autolab rotating ring disc electrode (RRDE) for the study of electrodeposition of copper and the detection of the Cu+ intermediate.

Electrochemical measurements utilizing a rotating cylinder electrode (RCE) are widely used in industrial corrosion applications when simulation of realistic pipe conditions are necessary in a lab environment. This white paper allows further insight into the particularities and parameters which govern the electrochemical measurements, in particular measurements performed in turbulent flow conditions, and shows a complete picture of the best practice use of this technique. The annexes provide an overview and short explanation of the parameters and laws specific to the fluid behavior in electrochemical cells with RCE.

In this work, time resolved Raman spectroelectrochemistry measurements with screen printed electrodes are shown. The instrument used combines in a totally integrated box: a 785 nm laser source, a high resolution Raman spectrometer and a bipotentiostat/galvanostat. Experiments are controlled with an excellent spectroelectrochemical software which allows real time data collection and useful data treatment.

This Metrohm White Paper presents the important role of electrochemistry in the environmental sciences. The applications have to do with basic research for the fuel cell that yields energy from wastewater, the electrical clean-up of contaminated soil and electrochemical CO2 reduction of greenhouse gases for isolating chemical raw materials.

With significant global viral outbreaks becoming the norm rather than generational outliers, it is imperative that fast, sensitive, and cost-effective testing is available to the masses. Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) allow rapid, widespread testing of populations for infectious disease, without the need of skilled personnel or burdensome equipment in the field. The possibility of point-of-care (POC) testing with SPEs has been exhibited in several recent studies. Metrohm DropSens combines high production capabilites of custom-made SPEs with a valid ISO 13485 certification "Manufacturing of sensors for medical devices", meaning testing procedures developed on these SPEs can be reliably scaled up for larger operations, with easier regulatory approval for commercialization.

The commercialization of Li-ion batteries in 1991 was the culmination of in-depth R&D conducted by scientists and engineers around the globe over the preceding few decades. Further development of Li-ion batteries and alternative rechargeable batteries has continued until today. As the world is rapidly moving towards a new era defined by green technologies, more practical and accurate R&D is required in order to meet the increasing demands for energy storage systems, specifically from the automotive industry. This white paper presents the basics of the Li-ion battery technology and guides the reader through the relevant techniques and terminologies in Li-ion battery research.

NIR spectroscopy has been traditionally limited due to the water absorption in this spectral range. In this way, the well-known water restriction has limited the development of new applications for NIR spectroelectrochemistry. In this work, several interesting alternatives are proposed in order to minimize or even to remove the aqueous contribution in this spectral range.

Free white paper describes the effective use of electrochemical techniques to measure corrosion and the effectiveness of inhibitors.

The shelf life of foods and beverages depends among other things on the packaging material used. Metals are ideally suitable for packaging, as they can be laminated with various passivating and food-compatible layers. Electrochemical measurements such as Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) make it possible to check the layers for damage.

This Application Note details ASTM G61-compliant corrosion measurements performed with VIONIC powered by INTELLO using Metrohm’s ASTM-compliant corrosion cells.

This application introduces two tools (current interrupt and positive feedback) that measure and compensate for up to 90% of the ohmic iR drop, a common error in electrochemistry.

In this Application Note, the Metrohm DropSens SPELEC instrument is used with the FLUORESCENCE KIT for time-resolved monitoring of electrochemical reactions in a semi-infinite diffusion regime by performing fluorescence spectroelectrochemistry of the [Ru(bpy)3]2+/3+ redox couple.

Polarization resistance (Rp) can quantify the corrosion resistance of metals as an alternative to Tafel analysis. Its methodology and practical use as described in ASTM G59 are discussed.

Here, the most common circuit elements for EIS are introduced which may be assembled in different configurations to obtain equivalent circuits used for data analysis.